Coastal Energy Equity in the Sundarbans Surrounding the Rampal Power Project

The Sundarbans is the world’s largest mangrove forest and a UNESCO-declared world heritage site situated in the southwestern region of Bangladesh. It lies across the outer deltas of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers. Covering approximately 10,000 square kilometers, it is the largest estuarine mangrove forest in the world. The forest is composed of small, forested islands and mudflats intersected by an intricate network of tidal waterways. The area has a wide range of rare fauna, including the Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile, and many reptiles and birds. It acts as a natural barrier against cyclones, floods, and storm surges, protecting millions of coastal residents from disaster. Beyond its environmental function, the Sundarbans supports the livelihoods of local communities through fishing, honey collection, forestry, and ecotourism. Millions of people depend directly or indirectly on its resources for income and survival.

In 2013, the Government of Bangladesh approved the Rampal Power Station, officially known as the Maitree Super Thermal Power Project, in Rampal Upazila of Bagerhat District. The Rampal Power Station is a coal-fired thermal power plant with a planned capacity of 1,320 megawatts, consisting of two units of 660 megawatts each. It is a joint venture between the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and India’s National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) under the Bangladesh-India Friendship Power Company. The plant relies on imported coal from Indonesia, India, Australia, and South Africa and burns approximately 4.75 million tons of coal annually. The coal is transported through sea and river routes to the power station, increasing shipping traffic in environmentally sensitive waterways near the Sundarbans. The project includes infrastructure such as coal storage facilities, water intake and discharge systems, and transmission lines.

Figure 1: Rampal Power Plant near the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Source: কুপি বাতি (2022), Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rampal_Power_Plant.jpg

Although promoted as a pathway to energy security, the project raises serious concerns about ecological damage, livelihood loss, and growing inequality for local communities, all questions central in debates about ocean equity. In turn, the Rampal coal power project has become a symbol of the tension that exists between development and environmental protection. Located just 14 kilometers from this critically important ecological zone, the project has received criticism from various national and international stakeholders, including residents, activists, environmental groups, and civil society actors. Despite the opposition, the government proceeded with the project, and the power plant became operational in 2022. Still, the uneven power relations that have persisted in connection with the project continue to shape the distribution of environmental risks and benefits, raising questions about environmental justice along multiple dimensions.

Figure 2: Location of the Rampal Power Plant near the Sundarbans. Source: Mongabay (2016).

Environmental and Social Impacts of the Rampal Power Station:

The Rampal Power Station has raised concerns due to its wide-ranging environmental and social impacts. Environmentally, the plant relies on coal, one of the most polluting energy sources. Since commencing operations in 2022, the plant has generated emissions including carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter, contributing to air pollution and climate change. The disposal of coal ash and thermal discharge into the Pasur and Maidara rivers is already deteriorating water quality and aquatic life and potentially making fish unsafe for consumption. Professor Anu Mohammad, member secretary of the National Committee to Protect Oil, Gas, Mineral Resources, Power, and Ports, said, “The river will be destroyed. This will harm the entire food chain in the Sundarbans. No technology can fix this damage” (Hossain, 2024). In another interview, Professor Muhmmad stated, “Rampal Power Plant is a death trap for the Sundarbans” (Prothom Alo English Desk, 2018).

Figure 3: A tidal creek in the Sundarbans, illustrating the waterways that support local livelihoods and sustain the mangrove ecosystem.Source: Shihabur Rahman (2020), Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Save_the_sundarbans_20.jpg

Chowdhury (2017) states that environmental impact assessments indicate that the impacts of the Rampal Power Station are predominantly negative and may lead to irreversible ecological damage, including biodiversity loss, river pollution, and disruption of aquatic and forest ecosystems. The transportation of coal through waterways near the Sundarbans further increases environmental risks, particularly the possibility of spills and pollution in this ecologically sensitive region. Past incidents, including the sinking of vessels carrying coal and oil, show how increased shipping can lead to pollution, releasing toxic substances into rivers, damaging aquatic biodiversity, and disrupting the fragile ecological balance of the Sundarbans (The Daily Star, 2018). For instance, in 2018 a coal-laden vessel sank in the Shela River near the Sundarbans (Figure 4), raising concerns about water pollution and ecological damage in the mangrove ecosystem (The Daily Star, 2018).  These risks also directly affect local communities who rely on these natural resources for their livelihoods.

Figure 4: A coal-laden vessel that sank in the Passur River near the Sundarbans. Source: The Daily Star, Photo by Anisur Rahman (2018)

Alongside environmental risks, the project has also generated serious social impacts. One of the most contested issues is land acquisition. Prior to the construction of the Rampal Power Station, approximately 1,834 acres of agricultural land and shrimp aquaculture ponds (gher) were acquired, and in many cases small landowners were forcefully dispossessed even after refusing to give up their land (Mahmud, Roth, & Warner, 2020).  As reported by Mahmud et al. (2020), Mr. Jamal, a small landholder, had to leave his village because he feared arrest or attack after protests turned violent. Although he received compensation, it was not enough to rebuild his livelihood, and he also had to pay a bribe during the process. The entire land acquisition process adversely affected local communities, leading to displacement and loss of livelihoods, particularly for those dependent on agriculture, fishing, and forest resources (Al-Mahde et al., 2025).

A Critical Environmental Justice Perspective on the Rampal Power Project:

The Rampal Power Project can be understood by looking at it through a critical environmental justice perspective and as a problem that is connected to concerns about ocean equity. Such a perspective emphasizes that environmental harm is deeply connected to broader systems of power, inequality, and domination (Pellow, 2018). Rather than viewing environmental issues as isolated problems of pollution or resource management, this perspective highlights how structural forces such as state power, economic interests, and political relations shape both environmental outcomes and social inequalities. From an ocean equity perspective, this also raises questions about how the benefits and burdens of coastal development are distributed and whether affected communities are meaningfully included in decisions that shape their futures (O’Neill et al., 2025). The Bangladesh government has frequently presented the project as a pathway to national development and energy security. However, its implementation has created significant environmental risks and social disruptions, raising important questions about the extent to which the state and their industry partners may also act as a source of harm.

One of the key concerns of the project is its unequal distribution of impacts. While the project is promoted as contributing to national energy security and economic growth, its negative consequences are largely felt in coastal communities living near the Sundarbans. These communities are primarily composed of small-scale farmers, fishers, shrimp cultivators, honey collectors, and other forest-dependent groups who rely on the Sundarbans for their livelihoods. Most of them belong to low-income households with limited access to alternative employment, making them highly dependent on natural resources for survival. As a result, they are particularly vulnerable to environmental changes and development-induced disruptions. Al‑Mahde et al. (2025), drawing on interview data, further highlights the lived experiences of affected communities. As one respondent explained, “before the establishment of the power plant, the quantity of crops produced was enough for our family. However, after the establishment of the power plant, the quantity of crops has decreased, making it difficult to support our family” (Al‑Mahde et al., 2025, p. 989). The respondent further noted that economic pressure forced their son to migrate to Dhaka for work, reflecting how the project has disrupted livelihoods and increased economic vulnerability. These communities face land dispossession, loss of livelihoods, and increasing exposure to environmental risks such as pollution and ecosystem degradation. This reflects a clear imbalance, where the benefits of development are enjoyed at a broader level, while the costs are concentrated locally.  

Apart from that, the local communities, especially farmers, fishers, and landless groups, have had limited opportunities to influence decisions regarding land acquisition and project implementation. Years of resistance and protest by residents, activists, and both national and international organizations highlight ongoing concerns regarding procedural justice. Local communities, environmental activists, members of civil society, and various NGOs have organized large-scale protests, demonstrations, marches, and public campaigns opposing the project (Figure 5) (Hance, 2016; The Daily Star, 2016). These actions have drawn national and international attention to the adverse impacts of the power plant. In addition, several international organizations, including the United Nations, UNESCO, IUCN, and Greenpeace, have on multiple occasions raised serious concerns about the project and urged the Bangladesh government to reconsider its decision and halt the power plant (Mathiesen, 2016; Dasgupta, 2016; UNESCO, 2016; Rahman, 2016).

Figure 5: Protest against the Rampal coal-fired power plant in Bangladesh. Source: Gmanwar.bd (2013), Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mithun_Roy_Chowdhury_Bangladeshi_Environmental_Activist.jpg

The project also illustrated how environmental injustice operates across multiple scales. As a joint initiative between the Bangladeshi government and India’s state-owned National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), Rampal reflects broader regional economic and political dynamics. While the benefits of such partnerships are often justified in terms of regional cooperation and economic growth, the environmental and social burdens are largely concentrated at the local level. It reinforces existing inequalities by shifting risks onto communities with limited power and resources.

In sum, the environmental and social impacts of the Rampal Power Project highlight the need to critically reconsider its future, particularly given the risks it poses to the Sundarbans and local communities, and the issue reveals the continued importance of developing a critical theoretical perspective that joins conceptualizations of environmental justice to that of ocean equity.

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Acknowledgments:

The author extends his sincere gratitude to Dr. Yoshitaka Ota, Dr. Matthew Jerome Schneider, and Dr. Brian F. O’Neill for their invaluable support and constructive feedback.

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About the author:

Aynal Haque is a graduate student and Ocean Nexus Student Fellow in the Department of Sociology and Criminology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington, where he also works as a Graduate Research Assistant and Graduate Teaching Assistant. His academic and professional interests bridge law and the social sciences, with research focusing on environmental justice, environmental volunteerism and activism, and the promotion of social equity.

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